·           Land shaping/ levelling , contour/graded bunds, diversion channels and other package of practices have been  developed for sustainable crop production on sloping and ravine lands.

·           Non-monetary inputs like contour cultivation, early sowing cover management of row crops through  legume intercropping and narrow spacing (90 x 20  in maize) for reducing runoff and soil loss and increasing production on moderately sloping lands were devised.

·           Organic mulching @ 4 t/ha effectively erosion losses from 37 to 6 t/ha on 8% slope having silty loam soils in alfisols of the Doon Valley and also increases yield of the subsequent crop from 1.9 to 2.4 t/ha . Normal tillage with live mulching (green manure grown in between maize rows) reduced runoff by 55% and soil loss by 60% at 4% slope. In vertisols, vertical mulching with similar amount showed beneficial effects on crop yield and reduced runoff and soil loss to a permissible limit.

·           Variably  graded bund for annual rainfall greater than 600 mm in permeable soils and less than 600 mm in impermeable soils disposed excess water safely. In red and lateritic soils, the practices of graded bunding reduced runoff from 20 to 13% and soil from  4 to 01. t/ha. Conservation ditching was also suitable in poorly drained   vertisols.

·           Graded trenches for 10-15% slopping areas in  high rainfall regions reduced runoff from 28 to 26% and  soil loss from 4 t/ha to negligible in red lateritic soils.

  ·           Bench terracing in 16 to 35% slopes of red and lateritic soils reduced runoff from 15 to  3% and soil loss from 45 to 0.5 t/ha.

·           Runoff farming with water harvesting, storage,  recycling, tapping of perennial flows and augmentation of well   water for supplemental irrigation through conservation practices has been very well  received by farmers. Lining with LDPE sheets reduced seepage but needed periodic maintenance . In red and lateritic soils, farm ponds with 2.5 ha-cm capacity of each hectare of catchment are recommended.

Non-arable land

·           Utilization of grasses and bushes in the vegetatively restored ravine land of Chambal, Yamuna and Mahi were investigated. Grazing of 4-6 goats/ha had  no adverse effect on vegetation, soil characterization and hydrological behaviour of the restored watershed.

·           Agroforestry systems for different agro-ecological regions were evolved. In high rainfall  foot  hills of the Western Himalaya, intercropping of peach with cowpea and turmetic from the second year onward is quite remunerative. Practices of raising   horticulture in gravelly river beds were evolved. Reshaping of surface configurtion for runoff horticulture was standardized. Lands with 33  to 50% slopes are suitable for horticultural plantations.

·           Restoration of denuded area by revegetation, staggered contour trenching, mulching and social fencing for sustainable soil and  water conservation are recommended in theShiwaliks.

·           Deep gullies (greater than 9 m) were stabilized by constructing gully plugs,  small earthen   check dams, live hedges, staggered contour trenches, plantation of  Dendrocalamus strictus and other indigenous tree species.

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Environmental improvement

  ·           Conversion of the Shola forest to an eucalyptus plantation in the Nilgiri hills reduced runoff by 16  and 28% respectively during the first and second rotations.

·           Bioengineering measures applied to 4204 ha of the Sukhana lake catchment of the Shiwalik hills reduced runoff from 23 to 11% and soil loss from 150 to 15  t/ha over a period of 16 years..

·           Landslide in the outer Himalaya (Mussoorie hills) were controlled with the help of bioengineering measures,  which reduced fom 53 to 38 mm sediment flow from 320 to 5.5 t/ha has increased dry weather flow from 100 to 250 days. Similar results were observed in the Nilgiri hills.

·           Technology involving bioengineering measures was developed for mine spoils stabilization in the Himalayan foothills and the Deccan plateau. In limestone minespoils watershed of 54 ha about 17,000 tonnes of debris was stablised  resulting in perennial flow of quality water  fit for consumption . The peak rate of runoff was moderated drastically from 9.5 to 1.6 mm/hs.